Natural Resources Governance

Natural Resources Governance

Investigating Factors Affecting the Sustainable Governance of Groundwater Resources in Zanjan Province

Document Type : Original Article

Authors
zahra azizi 1
Rohollah Rezaei 2
1 Department of Extension, Communication and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran.
2 1) Department of Agricultural Extension, Communication and Rural Development, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Zanjan, Zanjan, Iran.
10.22059/jnrg.2025.407388.1074
Abstract
Worldwide, the increasing depletion of groundwater reserves indicates that the fundamental challenge is no longer merely the physical scarcity of water, but rather the weakness and inefficiency of governance frameworks in managing these vital resources sustainably. Accordingly, this mixed-methods (qualitative-quantitative) research aimed to identify and prioritize the factors affecting sustainable groundwater governance in Zanjan Province, conducted using the Delphi technique. The statistical population consisted of 21 experts, senior executives from relevant organizations, and university faculty members specializing in water management and governance, purposively selected via the snowball sampling method based on their academic qualifications and professional experience. Data analysis was performed using SPSS software, employing mean, standard deviation, and Kendall's coefficient of concordance. Following two Delphi rounds and the confirmation of consensus stability (based on the Schmidt stability criterion and the consistency of Kendall’s W), 22 key drivers were identified that simultaneously met the criteria for importance and convergence of opinions. Ultimately, the selected drivers were prioritized within a layered model; the critical layer, as the core of the model, focuses on three strategic factors: reforming the water pricing system, enhancing the deterrent power of laws, and deploying monitoring technologies. In the subsequent levels, the necessary layer comprised 14 factors (such as climate change adaptation, inter-institutional coordination, and policy stability), and the supporting layer included five factors (including clarifying water property rights, integrating customary and formal institutions, and local decentralization), which collectively constitute the strategic framework for sustainable groundwater governance in Zanjan Province. By providing a prioritized structure, the findings of this study offer an objective platform for the realization of evidence-based governance, serving as a reference model for reforming decision-making processes in regions facing similar hydrological stress.
Keywords
Delphi Technique
Groundwater Resources
Key Drivers
Sustainable Water Governance Model
Zanjan Province
اعظمی, سمیه و محجوبی, مهسا . (1404). بررسی تأثیر حکمرانی خوب در کیفیت محیط‌زیست: تأکیدی بر نقش کیفیت نهادی در حصول توسعه پایدار. فصلنامه علمی پژوهش های اقتصاد صنعتی, 8(30), 59-83.
افشاری,سمیرا , سپهوند,فاطمه و نادری مهدیی,کریم . (1403). تحلیلی آینده‌نگرانه از چگونگی تحقق حکمرانی محلی آب در حوضه آبخیز قره‌چای. علوم ترویج و آموزش کشاورزی ایران, 20(2), 275-294.
شجاعی شیری,حسین , ارزانی,حسین , کشتکار,حمیدرضا , باقری,ستاره و کاوسی,امید . (1404). ارزیابی و پایش وضعیت خشکسالی با استفاده از داده‌های ماهواره‌‍‌ای و هواشناسی با تکیه بر سری‌های زمانی (مطالعه موردی: استان زنجان). مجله اکوهیدرولوژی, 12(1), 613-634.
صرامی فروشانی,ترانه , بلالی,حمید و موحدی,رضا . (1400). ارزیابی شاخص‌های حکمرانی منابع آب زیرزمینی در بخش کشاورزی ایران : کاربرد چارچوب حکمرانی سازمان همکاری و توسعه اقتصادی در دشت همدان ـ بهار. تحقیقات اقتصاد و توسعه کشاورزی ایران, 52(3), 591-615.
فکوریان,محمدحسین , نادری,مصطفی و تیموری,مهدی . (1403). ارزیابی سطح مدیریت نرمال و پایدار در منابع آب زیرزمینی استان زنجان. پژوهش آب ایران, 18(2), 59-68.
محمدیان,سمیرا , حیدری,آیدا و رحیمی,مجید . (1404). نظام حکمرانی منابع آب در چارچوب برنامه توسعه هفتم ایران: کاربرد تحلیل شبکه نهادی. حکمرانی منابع طبیعی, 2(1), 91-112.
مردانی,مهسا , توسن,معین و فلکی,ملیحه . (1404). حکمرانی مشارکتی آب‌های زیرزمینی (PGM): ترسیم مسیر نوآوری پایدار در مواجهه با تغییرات اقلیمی. آبخوان و قنات, 5(2), 121-138.
نصیری زارع, سعید و طهماسبی, اصغر . (1401). تحلیلی بر پیشران‌های کلیدی حکمروایی منابع آب کشاورزی (مورد مطالعه: شهرستان طارم). فصلنامه آب و توسعه پایدار, 9(1), 39-52.
Abu Romman, Z., & Al Kuisi, M. (2023). The impact of water legislation on groundwater sustainability in an arid region: Spatial statistical approach. Environmental Development, 46, 100852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envdev.2023.100852
Abubakari, M. A. (2025). Gender-inclusive governance in rural water management in Ghana. Discover Water, 5(1), 55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s43832-025-00253-7
Afshari, S., Sepahvand, F., & Naderi Mahdei, K. (2025). A prospective analysis of how to realise local water governance in the Qarachai Watershed. Iranian Agricultural Extension and Education Journal, 20(2), 275–294. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22034/iaeej.2025.451844.1794
Ahmed, T., Ahmed, M., Sipra, H., Hassan, F. U., & Scholz, M. (2025). Sustainable urban water management through the application of smart water meters in developing countries: Example case study from Pakistan. Sustainable Water Resources Management, 11(2), 32. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40899-025-01211-w
Ahsan, M. N., Naim, J., Sakib, N., Kumar, P., Okano, N., Hossain, M. S., Miwa, K., et al. (2026). When waters turn against communities: Unravelling water governance, security, and household well-being in hazard-prone coastal Bangladesh. Progress in Disaster Science, 29, 100500. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2025.100500
Al Falahi, A., & Guangcan, Z. (2025). Challenges and solutions in water management: A comprehensive study of Yemen's water policies and practices. Water Policy, 27(3), 317–333. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2025.218
Alwin, D. F., & Krosnick, J. A. (1991). The reliability of survey attitude measurement. Sociological Methods & Research, 20(1), 139–181. https://doi.org/10.1177/0049124191020001005
Azami, S., & Mahjoubi, M. (2024). Investigating the effect of good governance on environmental quality: An emphasis on the role of institutional quality in achieving sustainable development. Industrial Economics Research, 8(30), 59–82. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.30473/JIER.2025.73616.1488
Banerjee, C., Bhaduri, A., & Saraswat, C. (2022). Digitalization in urban water governance: Case study of Bengaluru and Singapore. Frontiers in Environmental Science, 10, 816824. https://doi.org/10.3389/fenvs.2022.816824
Custodio, E., Cabrera, M. C., Sánchez-García, D., de la Hera-Portillo, A., García-Aróstegui, J. L., Jódar, J., & Queralt, E. (2025). Proposal of groundwater governance indexes: Application to nine Spanish aquifers. Water Resources Management, 39, 3129–3147. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-025-04100-1
Dai, Y., Huang, Z., Khan, N., & Labbo, M. S. (2025). Smart water management: Governance innovation, technological integration and policy pathways toward economic and ecological sustainability. Water, 17(13), 1932. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17131932
Dawes, J. (2008). Do data characteristics change according to the number of scale points used? International Journal of Market Research, 50(1), 61–77. https://doi.org/10.1177/147078530805000106
DeVellis, R. F., & Thorpe, C. T. (2021). Scale development: Theory and applications (5th ed.). Sage.
Dunscombe, M. (2020). A guide to good research in small-scale social research projects (R. Rezaei & L. Safa, Trans.). Zanjan University Press.
Fakourian, M. H., Naderi, M., & Teymouri, M. (2024). Assessing the level of normal and sustainable management in the groundwater resources of Zanjan Province. Iranian Water Research, 18(2), 59–68. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22034/IWRJ.2024.14687.2585
Fessahaye, A. K., Xie, Y., Hu, Y., Dai, G., Zheng, H., & Teng, W. (2025). Groundwater over-extraction: Comprehensive review of socio-economic impacts and pathways to sustainable management. European Journal of Theoretical and Applied Sciences, 3(2), 190–211. https://doi.org/10.59324/ejtas.2025.3(2).15
Gebreslassie, H., Berhane, G., Gebreyohannes, T., Hagos, M., Hussien, A., & Walraevens, K. (2025). Water harvesting and groundwater recharge: A comprehensive review and synthesis of current practices. Water, 17(7), 976. https://doi.org/10.3390/w17070976
Hasan, N., Islam, M., & Siam, A. A. (2025). Policy-driven water resource governance mechanisms in the Surma River Basin using DPSIR framework. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 13, 119475. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jece.2025.119475
Hasson, F., Keeney, S., & McKenna, H. (2025). Revisiting the Delphi technique: Research thinking and practice. International Journal of Nursing Studies, 168, 105119. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2025.105119
Inter-American Development Bank. (1998). Strategy for integrated water resources management (ENV-125).
Kehinde, M. O., Bharadwaj, L. A., Bataebo, S., & Schuster-Wallace, C. J. (2025). Principles, barriers, and challenges of Indigenous water governance around the world. Environmental Science & Policy, 164, 103987. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2025.103987
Khanh, P. T., Thao, P. T. P., Tuan, N. V., Xuyen, N. T. K., & Ngoc, T. T. H. (2025). Community, enterprise, and state in groundwater governance: The case of the Long Xuyen Quadrangle, Vietnam. International Journal of Environmental Sciences, 11(23s), 2919–2925. https://doi.org/10.64252/ffaks606
Leder, S., Upadhyaya, R., van der Geest, K., Adhikari, Y., & Büttner, M. (2024). Rural out-migration and water governance. World Development, 177, 106544. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2024.106544
Mangal, M., & Govind, A. (2025). Water, agriculture, and climate: A study of Moroccan agricultural water management policy. Water Policy, 27(9), 941–960. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2025.313
Mardani, M., Tosan, M., & Falaki, M. (2025). Participatory groundwater governance (PGM). Journal of Aquifer and Qanat, 5(2), 121–138. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22077/jaaq.2025.8975.1100
Martín Velasco, M. J., Calderon, G., Lima, M. L., Matencón, C. L., & Massone, H. E. (2023). Water governance challenges at a local level. Water Policy, 25(7), 623–638. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2023.194
Megdal, S. B., Gerlak, A. K., Varady, R. G., & Huang, L. Y. (2015). Groundwater governance in the United States. Groundwater, 53(5), 677–684. https://doi.org/10.1111/gwat.12294
Ministry of Energy of Iran. (2022). Guidelines for water tariff estimation in Iran. (In Persian). Iran Water Resources Management Company.
Mohammadian, S., Heydari, A., & Rahimi, M. (2025). Water resources governance system within Iran's Seventh Development Plan. Natural Resources Governance, 2(1), 90–110. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/jnrg.2025.396798.1038
Molinos-Senante, M., & Donoso, G. (2016). Water scarcity and affordability in urban water pricing. Utilities Policy, 43, 107–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jup.2016.04.014
Muenratch, P., Nguyen, T. P. L., Shrestha, S., Chatterjee, J. S., & Virdis, S. G. (2022). Governance and policy responses to pressures on groundwater resources. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 18, 100791. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100791
Nasiri Zare, S., & Tahmasbi, A. (2022). Analysis of key drivers of agricultural water resources governance. Journal of Water and Sustainable Development, 9(1), 39–52. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22067/jwsd.v9i1.2111.1102
National Drought and Crisis Management Centre. (2024). Drought situation in the country. (In Persian).
Navaneeth, A., Sreeda, P., Maya, T. V., Surendran, U., & Harikumar, P. S. (2024). Unlocking sustainable groundwater governance in secondary cities. Urban Climate, 57, 102116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2024.102116
Polit, D. F., & Beck, C. T. (2006). The content validity index. Research in Nursing & Health, 29, 489–497. https://doi.org/10.1002/nur.20147
Preston, C. C., & Colman, A. M. (2000). Optimal number of response categories in rating scales. Acta Psychologica, 104(1), 1–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-6918(99)00050-5
Rittel, H. W. J., & Webber, M. M. (1973). Dilemmas in a general theory of planning. Policy Sciences, 4(2), 155–169. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01405730
Rogers, P. P., Llamas, M. R., & Martínez Cortina, L. (Eds.). (2006). Water crisis: Myth or reality? CRC Press.
Rogers, P., & Hall, A. W. (2003). Effective water governance. Global Water Partnership.
Sadat Sedgian Tarknejad, N., Khanmohammadi, E., & Aslipour, H. (2024). Analysis of factors affecting water governance in Iran. Quarterly Journal of Public Policy in Management, 14(50), 69–90. (In Persian).
Sarami-Foroshani, T., Belali, H., & Movahedi, R. (2021). Evaluation of groundwater resources governance indicators. Iranian Journal of Agricultural Economics and Development Research, 52(3), 591–615. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/IJAEDR.2021.313265.668972
Sarami-Foroushani, T., Balali, H., Movahedi, R., Kurban, A., Värnik, R., Stamenkovska, I. J., & Azadi, H. (2023). Importance of good groundwater governance in economic development. Groundwater for Sustainable Development, 21, 100892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gsd.2022.100892
Savari, M., Damaneh, H. E., & Damaneh, H. E. (2024). Managing the effects of drought. Climate Risk Management, 45, 100619. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2024.100619
Savari, M., Damaneh, H. E., & Damaneh, H. E. (2025). Ethical evolution in water resources management. Agricultural Water Management, 318, 109714. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2025.109714
Schmidt, R. C. (1997). Managing Delphi surveys using nonparametric statistical techniques. Decision Sciences, 28(3), 763–774. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5915.1997.tb01330.x
Shojaei Shiri, H., Arzani, H., Keshtkar, H., Bagheri, S., & Kavsi, O. (2025). Assessment and monitoring of drought conditions. Journal of Ecohydrology, 12(1), 613–634. (In Persian). https://doi.org/10.22059/IJE.2025.380086.1841
Song, S., Wen, H., Wang, S., Wu, X., Cumming, G. S., & Fu, B. (2024). Quantifying the effects of institutional shifts on water governance. Journal of Hydrology, 629, 130638. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2024.130638
Vicky, A., Olyanga, A., & Francis, M. (2025). Water tariff structures and access to clean water. JEFMS Journal, 8(12), 2017–2028. https://doi.org/10.47191/jefms/v8-i4-04
Zanjan Water and Agriculture Working Group. (2025). Zanjan Province governance and legislation think tank: Working report. (In Persian).
Zanjan Water and Wastewater Company. (2021). Water tariff schedule for domestic, agricultural, and industrial consumers in Zanjan Province (1400–1403). (In Persian).
Zhang, C. Y., & Oki, T. (2023). Water pricing reform for sustainable water resources management. Agricultural Water Management, 275, 108045. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2022.108045
Zhao, X., Yang, D., & Zhou, Y. (2024). The impact of digital technology on water resources management. Water, 16(19), 2867. https://doi.org/10.3390/w16192867
 
Natural Resources Governance
Volume 2, Issue 4
Autumn 2025
Pages 438-455